Iconography in art history - definition, history and examples

What is iconography?

Iconography refers to a set of specific types of images used by artists to convey deeper meanings in their works. Iconographic analysis involves the critical reading of images in the context of relevant social and cultural values. Iconography is often understood as a visual language that can teach audiences more about specific cultures and societies, both ancient and modern. Iconography is commonly used in the visual arts, but is also used in other academic disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, media studies and cultural studies.

Jan Van Eyck, Portret Arnolfiniego, 1434, Galeria Narodowa, Londyn.

History of iconography.

The word ‘iconography’ is derived from the Greek words ‘icon’ and ‘graph’, where ‘icon’ means ‘image’ and ‘graph’ means ‘to write’. Artists, craftsmen and makers have used icons and symbols to represent aspects of their cultures and societies for millennia. The earliest icons in visual art depicted religious or mythological figures. As early as the seventh century, images of Jesus Christ were depicted on panels displayed in Greek Orthodox churches.

Throughout art history, artists have used symbolic objects as part of their subject matter, and the study and interpretation of these symbols is what we call iconography. An artist’s use of a particular image in his or her work to symbolise a particular meaning did not become part of iconographic studies until the 16th century. Emblems and symbols were collected from manuscripts and other forms of literature, and their meanings were identified or translated so that artists could use them in their works, such as still life.

Albrecht Dürer, Melencolia I, 1514, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Nowy Jork.

It was not until the 18th century that iconography became commonplace. Iconography became a tool that accompanied archaeologists during their excavations so that they could classify symbols, themes and motifs in ancient monuments and objects.

Iconography later became a method to decode religious symbolism in the visual arts of the 19th century. Christian icons such as the lamb and the white dove, representing Christ and the Holy Spirit, were among the more popular icons in Western religious art. Eastern religious art, classical European art and secular art also use icons and symbolism.

However, an icon will have a different meaning when read in a different iconography. The white dove, for example, is a symbol of the Holy Spirit in Christian iconography, a symbol of life in Judaism, but is associated with the Greek goddess Venus or Aphrodite in classical mythology.

Iconography in Western religious art.

In Western art, art historians often refer to Cesare Ripa’s 1593 ‘Iconologia’, a book on emblems and their meanings, as an influence on the work of artists since its publication. As a scientific discipline, iconography developed in the 19th century through the work of scholars specialising in Christian religious art: Adolphe Didron, Anton Heinrich Springer and Émile Mâle.

Christian art and iconography developed most during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Classical Roman and Greek art often included iconography relating to biblical texts. Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, saints and apostles were common icons, with variations signalling different narratives related to the life of Christ and the Old Testament.

Christian iconography encompassed a complex symbolic representation that went beyond the simple depiction of certain figures. Many narrative paintings included detailed Christian iconography, incorporating gestures, clothing and objects that uniquely identified certain individuals. Saint Peter, for example, is always depicted with dark, bushy hair and beard, but often holding the keys to heaven, a fish or a rooster. Objects and other images are chosen on the basis of the moral story told about a particular saintly figure.

Peter Paul Rubens, Samson i Delilah, 1609-10, Galeria Narodowa, Londyn.

Clergymen often commissioned artists to paint highly detailed religious scenes. This was particularly true during the Romanesque period, when there was a great deal of iconographic innovation. Illuminated manuscripts, already in use, also underwent dramatic changes in the symbols accompanying the texts.

Stories from the Old Testament were among the more popular scenes depicted in Christian religious art, especially in the Middle Ages. Religious art from this period drew on extensive iconography to help convey complex religious messages and specific meanings as clearly as possible.

The Dutch painter Jan van Eyck contributed to the development of iconography by introducing many elements showing the interpenetration of the spiritual and material worlds. Van Eyck’s iconography is not the main subject of his works, but is usually subtly placed among his other paintings. His iconography is a symbolic reference to biblical references that connect with the beliefs of the time. Van Eyck is a prominent figure in the field of iconography because his paintings are so intricate and the symbols so subtly placed that the viewer has to look closely at the work to appreciate its true meaning. Arnolfini Portrait of 1434 is an example of the artist’s classical style.

Iconography in Eastern religious art.

Many religious works of art in Eastern cultures, such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, contain iconography consisting of a number of mudras and asanas, or gestures and postures that have specific, ritualistic meanings. Like kneeling and folding the hands in prayer, common in Christian art, these mudras and asanas represent divine qualities according to the stories contained in sacred texts and scriptures.

In religions such as Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism, colour plays an important role in iconography, often creating a link between the deity and other elements such as air, earth, wind and fire. Colour, mudras and asanas are also used to express the mood of the deity. For example, depending on the incarnation, the Hindu deity Vishnu is depicted as angry or calmed, using warm colours in the former case and cool colours in the latter.

Animals and flora are also an important element of eastern religious iconography. Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often associated with the symbol of an elephant, owl or peacock feather, as well as various plants such as the red lotus.

Secular and classical iconography in European art.

Many symbols from Renaissance iconography have influenced modern media and popular culture, including film, photography, comics and political caricatures. Many modern artists have referenced ancient iconography, adapting icons used by earlier artists to their own practices.

Frida Kahlo, Ranny jeleń, 1946. Kolekcja prywatna.

Some contemporary artists even created personal iconographies in which recurring symbols, figures, themes or settings were significant to them. Only those familiar with the artist’s work or life could understand the significance of particular symbols in their personal iconography. Artists with the most extensive personal iconographies include Hieronymus Bosch, Francisco Goya, Paul Gauguin, Pablo Picasso, Joseph Beuys, William Blake and Frida Kahlo.

William Blake’s personal iconography from the 18th century is a complex exploration of the relationship between people and the Christian God. In the 19th century, Pablo Picasso developed a personal iconography that was largely autobiographical, using the bull as a symbol in works such as 1937’s Guernica. Frida Kahlo’s iconography reflects her European and Mexican heritage, often combining Christian iconography in her self-portraits, depicting herself as the Virgin Mary or Saint Sebastian.

Even pop artist Andy Warhol created his own iconography. Warhol’s iconography communicated through celebrity portraits and objects that became American cultural icons, such as Campbell’s soup cans.

In the 20th century, Joseph Beuys used seemingly random objects to create his iconography. Materials such as felt, grease and honey were used in his works as a way of expressing his ideas about society and life. Evidently, iconography can be complex, and meaning can be attributed to an almost infinite number of objects or people. Nevertheless, iconography remains popular in the work of contemporary artists.

Famous artists using iconography: